counter reformation venice

Pole on one occasion advised Vittoria Colonna that she should believe as if salvation depended on faith alone, while acting as if it were dependent on good works as well. It provides a snapshot of the situation with four pertinent case studies representing the broad spectrum of Venice's churches. Then there were the zelanti, like Caraffa, who tended towards militant and inquisitorial methods, and who came into conflict with Spirituali like Pole and Morone, accusing them of heresy. cxi-cxii]. True to its catholicity, the Counter-Reformation was in spirit a universal movement. Awareness of all this came to Valdez, like Contarini, through “esperienza.” Valdez’s followers were mainly oligarchs, and his works were published in Venice. Another of Mutianus’s network was Johann Lang of Erfurt, who would shortly reside in an Augustinian monastery alongside a certain Martin Luther, who had studied in Erfurt after 1501 at the same time as Spalatin. Back at Venice, Contarini gravitated to a group of young patricians who gathered at the Camaldolese monastery of San Michele on the island of Murano to discuss the salvation of their souls. Pole was protected by Mary Tudor. Our responsibility, said Valdez, was to take this Beneficio di Cristo given to us through the Holy Spirit and manifested in good works, which were however without merit. Walter Friedensburg (ed. The Venetians were driven back to their lagoon; their destruction was imminent. The use of the papal interdict against a nominally Catholic country caused a sensation in the Protestant world, where tremendous sympathy for Venice was generated by an avalanche of propaganda writings, above all those of Sarpi himself. “All the princes of the empire, be they prelates or secular rulers, harbor a very ill will towards your most illustrious Lordship, which I have seen and touched with my hands….” [Alberi, series 1, vol. (5) Here recent studies detailing the civic and social institutions of Renaissance Venice and Rome provide a textured background for our analysis. The orders were made with Aldus Manutius in Venice, with payment by way of the Fugger copper mines in Hohenkirchen. These major objectives are emphasized in much of Counter-Reformatory literature, particularly women’s acquisition of strong religious morals aimed at preserving chastity until matrimony as well as the pursuit of the practical skills of “preserving” and managing their husbands’ property and wealth. Giovanni Caraffa(Paul IV), founder of the Theatines and elected pope in 1555. This was later called Rosicrucianism, among other names, and influenced such figures as John Dee, Robert Fludd, Sir Philip Sydney, Edmund Spenser, and Sir Francis Bacon. ], The other disciple of Mutianus Rufus named here, Spalatinus, is the one we focus on. Another family prominent in the effort were the Dona’, who will pop up again and again in this account. The celebrated practice of courtesanship supplied the island-republic with an exotic flare that set Venice apart from many other European cities. 6, p.43], he warned the Doge. The relative toleration that Protestants found in Ferrara and Venice was short-lived and Protestantism was unable to find any sympathetic government in Italy. His announced program was the maintenance of Bohemian liberties for these nobles. Women of 16th Century Venice. Spalatin, a student at Erfurt, became a protégé of Mutianus Rufus in 1504, visiting him in his Gotha office where “Farewell to Cares” was inscribed on the door. The commission said nothing of oligarchism or usury, but gave all the blame to the excessive power which the Roman pontiffs had arrogated to themselves. Lutherans and Calvinists cheered Venice, which appeared to have checked the inexorable advance of the Counter-Reformation. [Dwyer, pp. He had been made cardinal by Alexander VI Borgia, usually seen by church historians as the most reprobate of the Renaissance popes. With Aldus we are at the heart of the Venetian intelligence networks among the self-styled humanists around 1500. They chose Frederick V, the Elector Palatine, who had his court in Heidelberg, and who, as we have seen, counted Christian von Anhalt and Christoph von Dona among his most trusted advisers. When it proved impossible to conquer Milan, Florence, the Papal states and Naples, Venetian diplomacy invited France and Spain, the emerging great powers, to invade Italy; the Venetians thought they could pick up the pieces. Was Aldus planning a mission in order to secure strategic help for the Most Serene Republic in Venice’s hour of need? Dedicated to advancing the dialogue between faith and reason, Catholic University seeks to discover and impart the truth through excellence in teaching and research. The future Winter King, a Calvinist, had married Elizabeth, the daughter of King James I of England, and the English presence at the Palatine court in Heidelberg was associated with the same sorts of cultist kookery we have observed in the cases of Zorzi and Bacon. To see how this was done, let us look at Gasparo Contarini, whose studies under the Aristotelian Pomponazzi were interrupted when Emperor Maximilian seized Padova. The contacts between Venice and England during the period around 1600 were so dense as to constitute an “Anglo-Venetian coalition,” as Enrico De Mas asserts. When Luther went to Heidelberg for a theological debate, Spalatin made sure he had an escort provided by Frederick. To put them in perspective, let us jump from Gasparo Contarini in Venice in 1511 to Martin Luther in the tower of his Wittenberg monastery in the years 1513-1514, the years of Luther’s so-called “Thurmerlbenis” or experience in the tower, generally regarded as the starting point of the Protestant reformation. The essence of Venice is oligarchism, usury, slavery, and the cult of Aristotle. Italians went to mass and took part in religious festivals. Luther describes the experience thus: “These words `just’ and `justice of God’ were a thunderbolt in my conscience. It was also at this time that the Jewish community of Venice came into existence. Thus, the leading figure of the Protestant Reformation, the first Protestant in modern Europe, was Venice’s Cardinal Gasparo Contarini, who was also the leader of the Catholic Counter-Reformation. Luther appears to reflect the influence of the pseudo-Hermes Trismegistus and his “Book of the 24 Philosophers.”. Later, Spalatin would go on to become Saxony’s chancellor or prime minister. [Irmgard Hoess, George Spalatin (Weimar, 1956)]. 1592–1641) hosted a literary salon at her house in the Venetian ghetto, providing one of the most public and enduring forums for Jewish-Christian interaction in early modern Venice. Peter Matheson, “Cardinal Contarini at Regensburg” (Oxford, 1972). Paolo Veronese, Feast in the House of Levi, 1573, oil on canvas, 18 feet 3 inches x 42 feet, Accademia, Venice Speakers: Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. One such opinion came from the Franciscan Friar Francesco Giorgi, a member of the Venetian Zorzi patrician clan. Later, through the circle set up by Reginald Pole at Viterbo, Vittoria Colonna and Giulia Gonzaga would come into the picture, joined by Marcantonio Flamminio, Ochino, Vermigli, and others. [De Mas, p. 156] Fulgenzio Micanzio was literary agent for Bacon in Venice, arranging for the translation and publication of his writings. In February 1506, with the Cambrai war clouds on the horizon, Aldus had written to Mutianus’s disciple Urbanus: “I most highly esteem S. Mutianus Rufus because of his learning and humanity and confess myself to be very much in his debt, on the one hand because he constantly speaks well of me, and on the other because he kindly procured for me the friendship of a man decked out with learning and holy ways like you. Towards the end of the sixteenth century, Spain was showing signs of economic decline, and was attempting to retrench on her military commitments. The anti- Spanish Caraffa was the other homestretch contender, receiving support from the French cardinals led by Guise. In a battle between Venice and the papal states, foreign Protestant armies would fight on Venetian soil, making possible the religious conversion of the terra ferma (Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, Vicenza, etc.) 4. Another prong of the Venetian war against the Renaissance was Venice’s expansion inside Italy, on the terraferma, with the aim of conquering the entire Italian peninsula and then of using Italy to dominate the world. Caraffa turned against Pole during the conclave and accused him of “certain errors” in religion; Caraffa claimed that Pole had maintained “a platoon of heretics and of highly suspect persons” in his home in Viterbo. Horatio Brown, “The Venetian Republic” (London, 1902). In this rich and important book, the author explores why there was a surge in the publication of women writers in mid-sixteenth-century Italy [1530-1570]. There followed the celebrated defenestration of Prague of 1618, in which two representatives of Ferdinand were thrown out of the window by a group of Bohemian nobles organized by the Count of Thurn. When Luther refused, he was excommunicated (in other words, expelled from the church). [Nuntiaturberichte aus Deutschland, I, p. 14] He later became a papal diplomat and met with Luther in Wittenberg in 1535, during the period of the Smalkaldic League, the Protestant alliance which warred against Charles V in 1546-47. Counterreformation definition, a reformation opposed to or counteracting a previous reformation. Literate women could even be suspected of witchcraft since popular opinion endowed the written word with “magic powers.” Women were forced to suppress their individual needs and desires to their husbands, all in the name of rationality and civic decorum. Luther’s marginal jottings to Augustine’s Confessions have come to light; an interesting one recaptures Luther’s reaction to Augustine’s polemics against the Manicheans and their idea of the two coequal cosmic forces locked in struggle. Annone Veneto, Campagna Lupia, Campolongo Maggiore, Camponogara, Caorle, Cavallino-Treporti, Cavarzere, Ceggia, Chioggia, Cinto Caomaggiore, Cona, Concordia Sagittaria, Dolo, Eraclea, Fiesso d'Artico, Fossalta di Piave, Fossalta di Portogruaro, Fossò, Gruaro, Jesolo, Marcon, Martellago, Meolo, Mira, Mirano, Musile di Piave, Noale, Noventa di Piave, Pianiga, Portogruaro, Pramaggiore, Quarto d'Altino, Salzano, San Donà di Piave, San Michele al Tagliamento, San Stino di Livenza, Santa Maria d… Rudolph Haubst, “Der Reformentwurf Pius des Zweiten,” in “Roemische Quartalschrift,” XLVIII (1953), pp. In his 1551 report to the Venetian Senate, Daniele Barbaro remarked on the religious habits of the English, “among whom nothing is more inconstant than their decrees on matters of religion, since one day they do one thing and the next day they do another. Another translator of Bacon was the Archbishop of Spalato and Venetian agent Marcantonio de Dominis, who turned against Rome and stayed for some time as an honored guest of the English court before returning to Rome. “Concilium Tridentinum” (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1901). When Pope Clement VII Medici, under occupation by Charles V, refused to grant an annulment, Henry VIII appealed to scholars and universities for their opinions. Let us sample the epistemology of the Giovani, using Sarpi and his precursor Paolo Paruta. Pier Paolo Vergerio of Capodistria attended the University of Padova and married Diana Contarini of the Contarini family in 1526. The 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries saw a spiritual revival in Europe, in which the question of salvation became central. Catholic Church - Wikipedia As part of the Counter-Reformation, in 1563 the Council of Trent decreed that a Roman Catholic marriage would be recognized only if the marriage ceremony was officiated by a priest with two witnesses. Bernardo Bembo, the Venetian ambassador to Florence and the Florence handler for the Venetian Signoria was part of this (“The Venetians are called the new Romans,” he wrote. The participants included Morosini, Nicolo Contarini, Leonardo Dona, Antonio Querini, the Servite monks Paolo Sarpi, and Fulgenzio Micanzio, Galileo Galilei, and sometimes Giordano Bruno. An honest attempt at reform would have based itself explicitly on these proposals. For example, a young woman’s only claim upon the family patrimony was her dowry. That successor would be Elizabeth, under the dominant influence of Cecil, who had early gone over to the opposition to Bloody Mary Tudor. Some accounts portray Henry IV of France as eager to attack the Hapsburgs in Milan and on the Rhine during 1610, just before Henry IV was assassinated by the alleged Catholic fanatic Ravaillac, who accused Henry IV of being a threat to the Catholic Church. [See Graham Lowry, “How the Nation was Won”] Thus it is that the Venetian methods that were used deliberately to provoke the wars of religion of the sixteenth century, and later the Thirty Years’ War itself, can be discerned in the global strategic commitments of today’s British oligarchy tending to unleash a global cataclysm, a bellum omnium contra omnes (war of each against all) which no nation and no people could seriously hope to survive. R.R. The Venice of the Giovani was horrified by the apparent winding down of the wars of religion. A Jewish Salonnière and the Press in Counter-Reformation Venice ... biography of the Jewish poet and polemicist Sarra Copia Sulam situates her in the tradition of women’s writing in Venice and explores her rise and fall as a public intellectual in the tumultuous world of the city’s presses. E-mail Citation » A more general study of convents in Counter-Reformation Venice, with particular focus on nuns remembered in archival records for … This is similar to Luther’s starting point. It might be outdated or ideologically biased. [Bouwsma, p. 212], Paruta’s treatment of the fall of the Roman empire appears to be the starting point for Gibbon: “This stupendous apparatus, constructed over a long course of years through the great virtue and the many exertions of so many valorous men, had finally run the course common to human things, that is to be dissolved and to fall to earth; and with its ruin it brought on the greatest revolution in things.” [Bouwsma, p. 283], In religion, Sarpi and his right-hand man, Fulgenzio Micanzio, were very much Spirituali on the ex sola fede line of justification. Later Spalatin became a personal secretary to the Elector of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, gradually acquiring responsibility for Frederick’s prized collection of relics of the saints, and also for the newly founded University of Wittenberg and for its library. For Luther, the devil is an independent power who rules over the material world, so good works belong to the devil; human reason is the “bride and whore” of the devil. 54-61. This is the origin of all Augustine’s errors.” [see Socci and Ricci, and Theobald Beer.] The Vatican archives, then and now, contained the detailed reform proposals elaborated by Pius II and Nicolaus of Cusa during the previous century. Spain made peace with France in 1598, with England in 1604, and, after decades of warfare, began to negotiate with the Dutch. It is remarkable to observe how many of the key protagonists who detonated the Thirty Years’ War can be identified as Venetian agents. As after 1200 there had been talk of moving the capital, perhaps to Constantinople, so now plans began to hatch that would facilitate a metastasis of the Venetian cancer towards the Atlantic world. The creation and preservation of a Protestant regime in England was one of the principal goals of Venetian policy. The Contarini commission at the outset sought to identify the cause of the evils and abuses of the church, including simony, multiple benefices, bishops who did not live in their sees, moral failures, sybaritic lifestyles among prelates, and the like. According to Dudley Carleton, Cavendish visited Venice and Padova in September 1614, accompanied by Hobbes. Venice had a fickle foreign policy, but “Venice was the natural ally of every anti-Habsburg government […] Her ecclesiastical policy, too, brought Venice into conflict with the counter-Reformation tendencies of the Habsburg and the Curia” [i] and so it was almost always an ally or neutral with England and northern Europe. Virgins of Venice: Broken Vows and Cloistered Lives in the Renaissance Convent. A good deal of the difference between men’s and women’s legal status derived from the patrilineal system of descent and succession. There was a plan to carve up Venice. Or is that just a misconception- it's my first time playing the reformation. The Counter-Reformation’s success, or otherwise, depended on a number of factors but pro-reform popes was certainly a highly important one. In 1505, Mutianus Rufus found Spalatin a job at the monastery in Georgenthal, where he was responsible for purchasing books for the library. In any case, Henry’s death increased the tensions among the German Protestant leaders, since they had now been deprived of their protector. A woman’s dowry was her entire inheritance. Some advisers wrote position papers for Frederick warning him not to take the crown, saying that “acceptance would begin a general religious war.” [Parker, p. 55] But Christian von Anhalt and his friend Camerarius answered that such a war was inevitable anyway as soon as the twelve years’ truce between the Spanish and the Dutch ran out. Kirksville, MO: Truman State University Press, 2006. Paul III had several children of his own, two of whom he made cardinal… The seventeenth century would thus repeat the hecatomb of the sixteenth on an even vaster scale. These were the Spirituali, interested in the writings of Juan Valdez of Spain, who had come to Naples to teach that justification was given to us as God’s gratuitous gift. Quirini had seen that war was imminent. During the second half of the 1500s, Venice was in rapid decline. We must remember that Venice was a branch of the Byzantine Empire which became powerful enough to capture Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade, shortly after 1200. Earlier Pole had been considered a candidate to marry Mary, but now he was a cardinal and papal legate. In 1541, Contarini was the papal representative along with Morone at the discussions among Catholics and Protestants in Regensburg, where he proposed a compromise solution on the key issue of justification; on the one hand recognizing a justitia imputata to satisfy the Lutherans, while retaining some role for the justitia inhaerens. Rosicrucians in particular were heavily present at the electoral Palatine court. This feeds the resistance of those who have accepted the new laws, but who find them most offensive, as was seen in the rebellions of 1549. One is from Eastertide 1511, when Contarini went first to the Benedictine monastery on the island of San Giorgio Maggiore, and then to San Sebastiano. Accordingly, in July 1521, Aurelio Vergerio set off on a trip to the domain of Frederick the Wise, only to turn back at Innsbruck on account of illness. Pole, even though he was one of the Spirituali, could be highly inquisitorial when the interests of Venice required slaughter to create religious enmities that would last for centuries: Between 1553 and 1558, Pole and Mary presided over what many British historians claim to be the largest number of politically motivated executions in the history of England. Arrayed later around these were the Bishop of Carpentras Jacopo Sadoleto, G.M. Paul V's efforts to overturn the traditional authority of the Venetian state in ecclesiastical practice resulted in Venetian resistance and precipitated the Interdict crisis. The first step was to organize Germany into two armed camps, similar to the pre-1914 or post-1945 European military blocs. Also outlawed were the scabrous Facetia of Poggio Bracciolini and the writings of Pietro Aretino. Most stunning is the presence of Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini himself, Pope Pius II, one of the defenders of the church and of civilization: The Index banned those writings which Aeneas Silvius had retracted, presumably in a papal bull of April 26, 1463; these sustained theses of the conciliar movement. Frederick accepted the Bohemian crown, rushed to Prague, and then found himself in a hopelessly exposed position. Carl J. Friedrich, “The Age of the Baroque” (New York, 1952). The chronicle of Santa Maria delle Vergini (known as ‘Le Vergini’) in Venice was … He had captured some of the suburbs of Vienna when he was forced to retreat. After Luther had publicly burned Leo X’s bull of excommunication in December 1520, Frederick protected him from extradition. Through this thought I was changed from great fear and suffering to happiness. 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